Historical Patterns in Chinese Religion

Permeable boundary between the human and the divine. Gods and spirits exist everywhere – in trees, walls, etc. They are not "far away," but inhabit the same places. They have power over human lives and humans can become spirits and gods when they die.

The creation moment is not the main focus. The creation myths that form the foundations of other religions essentially separate gods and humans into different worlds. In China, the relationship is more like superior spirits to novices; both of whom are affected by laws and bureaucracies – earthly or celestial.

Pragmatic. Religious duties are performed with practical consequences in mind, such as the expectation of benefits like health, disaster avoidance, etc. This is found in many religions, but the utilitarian impulse is much stronger in Chinese religions and is found throughout them. Because of this common attribute, they are able to co-exist without a severe form of rivalry.

Illness the result of ethical lapse. A connection is seen between morality and physical well being.

Eclectic. The lack of strong belief or membership test allows people to take part in more than one religion. Because of this, there is a tendency towards eclecticism. For example, ancestor worship overlaps the different religious traditions. Average lay practitioners may use a "mix-and-match" approach when deciding which spirits can help them. The hierarchy of one religious tradition would certainly prefer its own teachings, but might borrow approaches, issues and terminology from others.

Popular religion. This is pragmatic, utilitarian. Designed to provide concrete benefits. There are gods of longevity, wealth, birth of sons, and a Kitchen God who reports to the Jade Emperor about who is good and bad. Some people smear honey on the mouth of his image in hopes that he will say sweet things about them. "Ling" is the spiritual efficacy or power a spirit has. The main concern is whether or not a spirit has enough Ling to bring the desired effect. One might "shop around" to find one that does. There exists a mutual dependence between gods and humans. The more offerings a god receives, the more powerful it becomes and vice versa. Ancestor worship is the focus of the Chinese ritual cycle. The festivals are an opportunity to fulfill obligations to deceased ancestors. They burn paper effigies of cows, servants, houses, and money as a way to improve the ancestors' afterlife conditions. The money that is burned may have inscriptions to show it is legal tender in both heaven and hell, depending on where the ancestor is.

Taoism (6th century B.C.) emerged as a philosophy to cope with chaotic times. Focused on survival and withdrawal and evolved into a religious tradition. Spontaneity in the face of constant change. Self-discipline and insight to achieve immortality. Physical health tied to morality. Also a revelation tradition, as it has texts to help achieve immortality. Rituals for cleansing the world and calling on the immortals. Under Buddhist influence, it developed a monastic tradition.

Confucianism (6th century B.C.) also emerged in response to chaotic times. Has texts. Its rituals are designed to express how we should feel in a given situation, rather than aimed at securing favor. As Dr. Deblasi described them, the rituals are an "organic expression of proper feeling." Confucianism evolved to explain the realization of human potential and morality. Faith is important but self-transformation is too – you are responsible for your enlightenment.

Buddhism Originally from 6th century B.C. India, and reached China in first century A.D. By the 10th century, it was integrated in Chinese culture. Has texts. Seeks release from suffering by freedom from desires. Several versions: meditative and faith in Buddhas (the enlightened ones). Recognizes different states of being, the existence of reincarnation, hell, ghosts, etc. One's behavior affects future incarnations. Can be reborn as a god. Aspects of Buddhism were easily integrated into China's other religious traditions because of similar views in which humans could become godlike – "the enlightened ones" – this fit into the rich spirit world of Chinese religion.

Historically, the imperial bureaucracy was viewed as having a mandate from heaven. This meant the emperor had the right to rule by virtue. However, they could lose their mandate if they were corrupt. Because of this, the major concern of emperors was maintaining social order. The imperial bureaucracy viewed itself as being guided by a celestial bureaucracy with a promotion-demotion system. Emperors also sought to use religious power to maintain their legitimacy. They paid for the printing of Buddhist, Confucian, and Taoist texts and also for monasteries and rituals.

The government viewed there own promotion-demotion system as mirrored by the celestial realm. Emperors promoted gods to higher positions in the "celestial bureaucracy" if they had been helpful. Not all religious groups were cooperative with the state. There were extremists and anti-government rebellions (White Lotus Buddhism, Boxer rebellion, Taiping rebellion) which the government suppressed. The imperial government practiced a combination of religious support and suppression. The suppression was triggered by perceived threats to public order. In modern times, Christianity and nationalism and other western ideologies had been imported. The Taiping rebellion involved a melding of traditional ideas with Christianity. In 1949, the establishment of the People’s Republic saw the oppression of religious practice. In the 1980s the government became more tolerant of religion, but only as far as it didn't threaten social order. Today, the government sometimes pays for monasteries and bibles. Dr. DeBlasi pointed out that this echoes back to the government's traditional interaction with religion. Another example of this is the 1999 crackdown on Falun Gong. It was triggered by fear of the group's potential power shown in a demonstration involving 10,000 people. The government saw this religion as a threat and resorted to the traditional attempt to preserve social order.

In closing, Dr. DeBlasi remarked on the current re-emergence of Christianity as a potential widespread movement in China. It will likely also be affected by the instinct for eclecticism, rather than mimic the exclusiveness of western Christianity.

Contact us for further information at info@humanistsociety.org

Send website comments to webmaster@humanistsociety.org

Return to CDHS Home